Headwear in the Fatimid Caliphate was as equally ostentatious and elaborate as in the Abbasid Caliphate. Fatimid Caliphs wore Large, white golden turbans with caps.
C) Headcoverings
Men
1- ʿImāma عِمامة
Richly decorated and embroidered ʿImāmas (turbans) were a characteristic feature of the Fatimids’ headwear, as noted by many historians, in addition to their considerable size. The most outstanding item of the caliph’s attire was his enormous turban, which consisted of a cap (shāshiyya) around which was wound a mandil in a fashion unique to the ruler in the shape of a myrobalan (al-ahalilaja), an ellipsoid Indian fruit. This special manner of winding the caliphal turban, which according to Al-Maqrizi was hitherto unknown, was called “the winding of majesty” (shaddat al-waqār). The entire turban was ornamented with jewels. An enormous solitaire (yatima) mounted on a silk band was centered on the caliph’s forehead. The entire headgear was called “the noble crown” (al-tāj al-sharif). The particular fashion of winding around the ʿImāma in the Taḥnik style was taken up by high-ranking court officials in 11th-century Fatimid Cairo. This fashion was adopted by the chief eunuchs of the court who were the amirs of the palace known as “Al-Ustdhādun Al-Muḥannakaun” or “chinned masters”. The caliph Al-ʿAziz (r. 975- 996/365-386) became the first ruler to appear with the ḥanak and eventually so did the vizier and the amirs. This fashion was introduced into the east by the Fatimids from the Maghreb, where it may still be seen, especially in southern Algeria and Morocco.
2- qalansuwa قلنسوة
The main headwear for the Fatimid male didn’t divert from the usual pre-existing types. The main types of headwear worn by males were the elongated sugarloaf cap (tawila), cone-shaped, and dome-shaped cap. The perspiration skull cap, maʿraqa, used for both men and women, was worn as a foundation layer to protect the expensive headgear.
3- Kalawata/kaluta كَلوتة
Another head covering which is first mentioned during this period is the kalawta or kalauta (cf. Latin calautica; French calotte, Persian galåta). This headwear was introduced by the Ayyubid sultans in Egypt. They were yellow felted caps, sometimes with buttons, and they were worn their heads without turbans, and their hair was let loose. It was to become a standard item in Ayyubid and Mamluk times. During the reign of the Mamluk Sultan, Qalawun, he re-introduced the fashion of wrapping a white muslin turban (shah). They had a contrasting band or ribbon decoration at the base called (tadrib).
maqamat al-Hariri.
4- Ṭaylasān طيلسان
The ṭaylasān and the ʿImāma became the standard insignia of the judge. When a judge takes office, he’s bestowed a khilʿa of ṭaylasān by the caliph. Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (r. 996-1021) bestowed a judge a ṭaylasān and an ʿImāma weaved with goldwork when he assumed the judicial office.
5- Mindil مِنديل
The mandil is an Arabized word that comes from Latin “mantele”. According to Arabic dictionaries, the mindil was a piece of cloth used as a handkerchief to wipe sweat. The mandil in medieval times had numerous purposes, it was used as a napkin, towel, wrapper, waist sash, or kerchief, even a substitute for a turban for a male or a substitute for a veil for a woman. No person of any social standing would be seen without it carried in the hand or ostentatiously tucked into the belt in the later period. Al-Qalqashandi reports that the mandil was used as a royal insignia for the Fatimid caliphs. Fatimid caliphs wore mandils matching their uniform (badlah) in color and wounded them around a shāshiyya or qalansuwa to make a turban.
Although generally white or pale grey in color, the mandil was sometimes very colorful, red, black, or various tones of blue often with additional decoration in the way of lace (presumably crochet or needlework), fringes, and ornamental borders. For embroidery in metallic threads, either the services of a professional embroiderer (raqqam) or of the female members of the household would be sought.
6- Tāj تاج
Al-Maqrizi mentions in his book on the history of the Fatimids “Itti‘āz al-Ḥunafā’ bi-Akhbār al-A’immah al-Fāṭimīyīn al-Khulafā”, that Sitt Al-Mulk, a Fatimid princess during her brother’s reign, Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh (r. 996-1021), gifted him a tāj on his wedding day.
Women
The Geniza trousseaux mention almost seventy items for women alone, and not surprisingly more than half of these are veils and headgear. These head coverings usually matched the color and fabric of the overgarment and were secured by a headband (ʿiṣāba) or kerchief with ribbons cascading down the back. For outdoor apparel, a bukhnuq or head-dress with a face veil was donned; over this, a large head veil was thrown and a thawb or ridā over the shoulders. According to the geniza trousseau lists, women tried to match the colors of robes, cloaks, and wimples. In general, colors play a great role in a woman’s choice of her wardrobe. However, we have a more detailed list, and one can observe that the bride had preferences. Thus our rich brides seem to have liked discreet colors, such as greyish, or colors defined by clouds, poultice, wax, starch, apricots, or pistachios.
1- Veils
The Geniza trousseau contains a plethora of veils of varying sizes, colors, and materials. Miqnaʿa, Mandil, ‘ardi, qināʿ, and miʿjar are all names denoting veils mentioned in the geniza trousseau. Fatimid contemporary artistic representations of female singers and dancers show us that head coverings were widespread among Fatimid women. Veils were usually wrapped around the head and secured with pins or a headband. Pins and fasteners for securing the various veils and mantles in place are mentioned in the Fatimid trousseau lists.
The geniza trousseaux lists inform us that Egyptian Muslim and non-Muslim women veiled their faces alike. Several face veils are mentioned in those lists. Royal ladies veiled their faces when they ventured outside the palace. Sitt Al-Mulk was mentioned in historical accounts as covering her face when she went out of the caliphal palace. A decree issued by Al-Hakim bi-Amr il-lah in 1005 C.E/395 A.H mandated that women do not unveil their faces, which stresses that some women in the period may have abandoned veiling their faces. The face veils mentioned earlier in the Abbasid period such as the qina veils, niqab veils, and the shaʿrriya eye veil, were still worn in the Fatimid period.
2- Miʿjar مِعجر
The female version of the male turban, the miʿjar flowing down over the body previously mentioned in the Headwear of the Abbasid caliphate was the most common type of head-covering mentioned in the Fatimid trousseau lists. Goitein S. D writes that the ubiquitous female head cover miʿjar is described in one trousseau list as “ridwāni” or “cloaklike,” which means that it was large enough to be wrapped around the entire body, perhaps serving the dual function of a veil and cloak simultaneously.
Arabic sources mention a type of miʿjar exclusively worn by wives of the caliph and elite women was called “miʿjar mudhahab muwashah mujawim mitraf” meaning a miʿjar (large cloak) with decorated trims, embroidered with gold and patterns. Price ranges varied depending on the fabric’s quality and the wearer’s position. Miʿjars worn by the wives of the caliph reached 50 dinars (gold coins), whereas those sold to the middle class ranged from 2 to 3 dinars.
There are numerous mentions of miʿjars in the trousseaux of a Jewish bride married in 1028. “… a mantle-like miʿjar, … a snow-white slip and a miʿjar, … two red robes, a cloak, and two miʿjars”. Another bride in Fustat married between 1128-1153 C.E had “a white brocaded festive robe, and its miʿjar and a pomegranate-colored festive robe, and its miʿjar.” Fatimid women tended to match their veil color with the accompanying dress.
3- ʿImāma عمامة
Women wore turbans in the Fatimid period just as men, but women’s differed from men’s in their smaller size and elaborate decoration with pearls and gemstones. Heavily embroidered and decked ʿImāmas were discovered in the treasuries of Rashida bint Al-Muizz the daughter of Fatimid caliph Al-Mu’izz. She was renowned for collecting antiques and treasures and ended up amassing an insane amount of wealth making her one of the richest women of her time. Some wealthy bridal trousseau in the geniza records contained mentions of ʿImāmas.
4-ʿarḍi العَرضي
It was probably a large head-shawl or veil. Indeed, we find the ‘ardi replacing the mindil in the popular ensemble which consisted of a dress, belt, and some kind of head–covering or veil, e.g., a jukkaniyya, wasat, and ardi. Similarly, we find two-piece combinations such as jukkaniyya and ‘ardi or thawb and ‘ardi, where the ‘ardi parallels the mindil.
The woman’s ‘ardi was made of very fine linens and silk and came with a wide variety of decorations:
- different colored selvage decorated bands
- tassels
- streaks running through it
- being lined or padded
- embroidered with silk
“Most ‘ardi came in either white, blue, or green. One ‘ardi is mentioned, however, in the exotic color “mandrake”.
5- Cap/qalansuwa قلنسوة
Small skullcaps were usually worn under the ʿimāma or veil to prevent slippage or to protect the headdress from hair oil and sweat. Skullcaps made from regular materials cost about 1-2 dinars but those made from silks were much costlier. One of the trousseaux mentions a skull cap of dabiqi linen costing about 22 dinars, and a silk skull cap with ḥamāʾīlī (a fabric named perhaps for its belt-like designs) ornaments.
6- ʿIṣāba عِصابة
A particular incident happened during one of the famines that hit Fatimid Egypt of a stolen ʿiṣāba (headband) belonging to a wealthy woman somehow emerged later in the possession of a judge (which subsequently led to his arrest) is a fact that highlights that the ʿiṣāba was a unisex headwear at the time. Courtiers and court entertainers (lute players and musicians) depicted in several Fatimid lustre bowls wear the ʿiṣāba.
A trousseau list of an Egyptian Jewish bride married around 1128-1153 C.E. includes “a kerchief of white dabiqi linen and a greyish headband”.
Lists of affluent brides in the geniza documents contain several mentions of golden diadems or metal headbands (ʿiṣāba) inlaid with pearls and richly decorated with filigree that reach the price of 80 dinars. The value of this cardinal piece of jewelry brought in by the two girls from Fustat (seventy and eighty dinars, respectively) could provide a living for about three years for a modest family. The ʿiṣāba is given to a headband made of fabric as well but is less expensive and ranges from 1 to 7 dinars.
playing the lute wearing an ʿiṣāba tied with
a knot at the back, from the 11th century,
Benaki Museum of Islamic Art, Athens.
7- Maʿraqa مَعرَقة
The maʿraqa is a fillet or a perspiration cap, from Arabic ʿaraq or sweat hence its name— that prevents sweat and hair oil from staining the expensive headdress above it. Alongside the maʿraqa, the under-veil cap wiqaya were both used in the Fatimid era. Egyptian brides had several of these in their trousseaux in a variety of colors and decorations. The maʿraqa is listed in ketubbahs when made from Egyptian linen, red Sicilian silk, and the like.
8- Mindil مِنديل
The Mindil was used as a face veil or a headscarf. The size, the fabric, the color, and the decoration all influenced its price. In the Geniza lists, one mindil length is mentioned as 5 dhira ذراع (arm) (over 3 yards: 2.9 m), and elsewhere, one of 9 spans (2.25 yards: 2 m) is given.
Mindils were used as winding scarves, usually with an embellished trim, wrapped around their turbans or caps as a decorative element to their headwear look. One winding scarf was called miryish meaning “from feathers” in Arabic. This scarf was welted with feathers and cost about 5 to 13 dinars. “One face kerchief” is listed in a Jewish bridal trousseau.
Other new items from the Fatimid period that appear in the Geniza are the ʿaqabiyya, ʿarḍi, mukallaf, and radda, all headscarves or shawls; and the khaṣṣi and wasaṭ, both belts or cummerbund.
9- Kūfiyya كوفيَّة
Mayer believes that the Kūfiyya was an ornate cap similar to the ṭaqqiya worn by both genders. That’s not to confuse it with the Abbasid Kūfiyya which is a type of head-shawl. The form of the Kufiyya could also be inferred from a 13th-century ruling by Ibn-Taymiyya regarding wearing the kufiyya described as “a kufiyya with parting and roundness”. This indicates that it was a piece of cloth folded in half and round around the face. According to him, the wearing of the kuffiya caps, a boy’s headgear was not permissible for women since it didn’t adequately cover the entirety of the hair on the back and it fell into the category of transvestism. However, most of these clerical declarations fell on short ears and women often didn’t heed them. The Kūfiyya and ṭaqqiya were small caps/coifs worn by young boys and girls.
Stillman believes that from the descriptions given in Thousand and One Night, it was certainly far more ornate than an ordinary cap and seems to correspond more to the Kūfiyya or beniqah worn by women in Algeria. The beniqah was a close-fitting bathroom cap, often richly embroidered, with flowing ribbons or a scarf hanging down, and studded with semi-precious and even precious stones.
However, similar caps with two long bifurcated sections have been dug from Egyptian mummies during the Roman era. The two sections were most likely wrapped around the head to form a turban. There is also a similar boy’s cap with bifurcated lapels made from linen with an Ankh eye decoration that was excavated from El Bagawat and dates to the 4th century.
We are unsure if the Kuffiya headdress was a mere continuation of the local Egyptian modes of dress but with a different nomenclature or was a new influence from Western North Africa brought by the Fatimid conquerors.
The references to the Kūfiyya in the Geniza are rare, and the reading is not absolutely certain, though in one instance there seems to be described a cap with flowing bands, viz, …” a kaf[iyya] from each side of which are three parts.” It is almost certainly an item of headgear here as it is listed along with a ʿImāma or turban. It was most commonly referenced in the late Fatimid and early Ayyubid periods.
A lute player and a porter wearing caps from an ivory panel with hunters and revelers, 11th-12th centuries, Fatimid.
Roman Period, Egypt, 3rd–early 4th century. The Met Museum, Credit Line: Rogers Fund, 1930
Accession Number: 30.3.56.
Not too long ago, the Kuffiya was also a female head-covering in Libya similar to the Gargush a richly embroidered and embellished hood worn by Yemenite Jewish women.
D) Footwear
In addition to the long-grounded footwear, the niʿaāl (shoes), and khuff (boots) all throughout the Islamic empire, another type of footwear appeared during the Fatimid era called the Qubqāb (wooden clogs). The term qubqāb originated from the onomatopoeic clip-clopping sound it produces in Arabic. These wooden clogs were made out of a wide variety of woods from the mulberry tree, beech tree, or willow tree. Because they were made out of these durable materials, they instantly became a hit amongst the Muslim inhabitants of the region. They were comfortable to wear and preferred particularly in the bathing areas inside homes, public baths (Hammam), and ablution (Wuḍūʾ) spaces in mosques for their anti-slip properties, plus, they are heat and cold-resistant. These clogs come in many shapes, heights, and decorations. Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, and Istanbul were the most renowned nexuses of qubqāb manufacturing with each city having a designated market for their selling.
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