There is a disparity in the rate at which fashion changed throughout the decades and even centuries between Western and Eastern fashions. The former continued to drastically evolve and shift through each decade and century, while the latter, primarily situated across the “Arabized” Mediterranean regions, kept the universal articles of the Arabian wardrobe relatively unchanged.

Arab Muslim fashions in the region of Dar Al-Islam (domain of Islam) stretching over from Iraq, the Levant, and Egypt in the East, and North Africa and Al-Andalus in the West during the Middle Ages and High Middle Ages generally fell into the “international Islamic style,” yet that did not necessarily mean they all dressed in an identical manner. If we closely examine the progression of fashions from the late 8th and early 9th centuries until the fall of the Mamluk Sultanate in the 16th century, we can observe that the general silhouette and basic articles of the Arab urban dweller’s wardrobe were relatively consistent. Despite the Islamic vestimentary system having an overarching uniform style, there were definite regional and local stylistic variations across the Arabic-speaking Islamic world.

The Abbasids were decentralized and fragmented as they began to lose their territories to locally emerging autonomous dynasties starting from the late 10th century. These dynasties were either established by conquerors from other lands (Seljuks, Tulunid, Buyids) or native ones (Fatimd, Aghlabids) who managed to seize control. These varying ethnic groups contributed to the variegation of the ethnic dress of the Islamic world. Dress distinguished the Bedouins from townspeople, civilians from the military, the elite from the common, and the officialdom from the clergy.

Western fashion in mainland Europe, although it stayed fairly consistent right up until the end of the Middle Ages, had many garment names evolve and change throughout the centuries, with new types of garments being added (structured undergarments like corsets and farthingales in the 16th century) or forsaken completely (ruffed collars and partlets).

Early medieval fashions in the Islamized East and Christian European West were, in fact, not that different. Although seemingly on opposing sides, both places culturally and ideologically shared the same core values and ideas on morality. Early medieval clothing was identical in mainland Christian Europe and the Islamized Near East, with slight variations in the construction methods, fabrics, decorations, and accompanying complementary accessories. It’s only since the 14th and 15th centuries that the two types of vestments have truly started to deviate from each other.

Eastern and Western costumes generally consisted of the same basic articles of clothing, such as an undergarment like a chemise, coupled with underdrawers for Muslim men and women or braies for European men. The outer garments comprise a T-shaped overtunic and some sort of mantle or cloak, then a shoe as footwear. Stockings were present in both European dress and Eastern dress; however, for Easterners, it was mainly worn in winter. Near Eastern traditions required both men and women to cover the head. The average Arab man wore turbans and head shawls as headwear. As for European men, a simple coif or hood sufficed. Medieval Christian and Muslim women similarly wore veils and observed modesty. Veiling in various ways and social contexts was practiced in ancient Persia, Mesopotamia, Greece, and pre-Islamic Arabia.  

 

 

 Under Islamic law, some commandments govern Muslims’ conduct and dress. Sometimes, these two notions showed a reciprocal relationship. A moral person wears morally appropriate clothes, such as not showing excessive skin and not being exorbitant in nature. These commandments call for acting modestly and lowering the gaze in front of the other gender by dressing appropriately to not attract attention by covering their ‘awrah (pudenda or intimate parts of the body, for both men and women, which must be covered with clothing).

 Now, what constitutes ‘awrah for men and women varies. Most schools of thought require men to cover from the navel to the knees. As for women, it is a much more contested matter and has been debated among Islamic scholars and exegetes for centuries. Scholars are divided on the matter; some schools of thought say that it’s required for a woman to cover her entire body except her face and hands. Other schools of thought insist that a woman’s body, including the hand and face, should be covered. Nonetheless, there’s a consensus amongst scholars that a woman’s hair and entire body minus a few parts are considered an ‘awrah. 

Islamic sumptuary laws prohibited men from wearing garments made out of certain types of fibers, such as pure silk, as it was seen as an intemperate luxury (isrāf) and hence inappropriate in this world for men. Also, clothes dyed purely from certain plants like safflower (Al-ʿAaṣfar) and Saffron (Az-zaʿfarān) that give a yellow, orange, and red color were proscribed by the prophet, as they were considered women’s and non-muslims’ garments (as it was prohibited to resemble the attire of the non-muslims). In addition, jewelry made from gold was also prohibited since they were women’s jewelry. Yet, those prohibitions for men weren’t applied to women, as they were allowed to dress and ornate themselves however they pleased with any fabric or material, granted they hid their ornaments under their veils. 

Also, in the Islamic faith tradition, men are forbidden from lengthening their garments below the ankles as it was seen as a sign of vanity and flaunting. According to a hadith by Ibn ‘Umar, it reported that Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) has said:

Allah will not look upon him who trails his garment out of pride

Several Prophetic hadiths sternly condemn and warn those who let their garments reach the ground. As one hadith mentions:

whomever extends his izār (waistwrap) over the ankles is in Hell.

These restrictive laws for men were neglected, as evidently seen in later Islamic dynasties. The wearing of plain and simple clothing known in the Rashidun caliphate was soon to be forsaken and was solely reserved for the ascetic pietist few. These individuals eventually became known as Sufis, meaning people of the wool—hence their name came from their plain wool (suf) garments. Sufis are adherents of a sect of Islam called Sufism or generally branded as Islamic mysticism. 

Although red was a proscribed color for men according to a hadith narrated by Ibn-ʿAbbas: 

“I was forbidden to wear red garments and gold rings, and to recite Qur’an when bowing”,

it’s fair to mention that the prophet wore a red ḥulla (a ḥulla is an ensemble of two or more garments usually an izār, qamiṣ, and a ridāʾ) according to a hadith by Al-Bara’: 

“I saw the Prophet [SAW] wearing a red Hullah, with his hair combed, and I have never seen anyone before or since, who was more handsome than he.” 

Muslim scholars inferred, that the prohibition was prescribed to garments dyed solely with red, while the red ḥulla worn by the prophet was two burds (woolen mantles) colored black or green with red stripes. So, garments that have red mixed together with other colors weren’t prohibited.

Outer garments in early Islam consisted of some sort of shirt or tunic, and then worn over it a mantle or outer wrap, then a head covering, and shoes.

B) Outer Garments:

Unisex

1- Thawb ثَوب

It is the outermost tunic worn over the qamiṣ, either long or short-sleeved, wide or tight-sleeved. Thawb literally means “garment” in Arabic. It serves the same function as a kirtle.

Men

1- Ridāʾ رِداء

It refers to any garment worn over the upper body, either tailored like the qamiṣ (shirt) and jubba (robe) or untailored, usually an outer body wrap like an Izār and Mulā’a or a shawl.

2- Qamiṣ قَميص

The qamiṣ (from late Latin camisia) is a sleeved body shirt, either long-sleeved or short-sleeved. It varies in length; some reach the knee, and some are longer. The opening for the neck was round and could either be slit down the front or not. It’s usually made from breathable and comfortable fabrics such as cotton or linen. Based on hadith literature, the qamiṣ was an outer garment in early Islam as well as the Rashidun era but slowly transitioned into an undergarment in the later periods. It’s reported that it was one of the prophet’s favorite garments, preferably in his favorite color, white. This is further emphasized in a hadith saying:

 “Wear your white clothes, for they are the best of your clothes, and shroud your dead in them”.

 

3- Jubba جٌبَّة

In early Islam, the Jubba was a woolen tunic with rather narrow sleeves, which was imported in the Prophet’s time from Syria and perhaps elsewhere in the Byzantine Empire. A canonical hadith reports that the prophet wore a narrow-sleeved Roman Jubba (Roman tunic). Another hadith also reports that while the prophet was in travel, wanting to perform ablution, he was wearing a tight-sleeved Shami (Levantine) Jubba and tried to take his hands out of his sleeves, but they were too narrow, so he took out his hands from under his tunic and washed them. Unfortunately, we don’t have contemporary depictions of a medieval Jubba, but a lot is present in the modern age.

The Jubba was also a long-sleeved outer garment open in the front. According to a hadith, the prophet wore a Jubba with brocade-hemmed sleeves. In early Islam, the Jubba was tight-sleeved and later became wider. The Jubba has fallen out of mainstream fashion (just like most traditional garments) and is now donned as the official Azhar clerical uniform, including Imams (prayer leaders), Muslim scholars, and pundits.

 

4- Burd or Burdah بُُرد أو بُردة

 A striped outer mantle from Yemen made from wool. It’s usually draped over the shoulders, either left loosely hanging or wrapped around the body. It can be of any color, but commonly in green or red. The burd/burdah was also a substitute for a waist wrap just like the izār. It was narrated that Abu Rimthah said: 

I saw the Prophet (ﷺ) delivering the Khutbah, wearing two green Burds.

 

The Burdah was a multipurpose garment that can be used as an outer wrap in the morning or as a blanket in the evening. 

 

 

5- Shamlah شَمْلَة

A fringed cloak with decorated trims. It was made from wool or animal hair.

 

6- ʿAbāʾ عَبَاء

A sleeveless square-shaped outer cloak opened in the front, draped over the shoulders, with a shoulder seam. Yet, sometimes two armholes are cut to pass the arms. The ʿabāʾ was a characteristic dress of the Bedouins, usually black in color and made from coarse fabrics like felt and coarse wool. In early Islam, the ʿabāʾ was considered an inexpensive garment worn by lower-class people or those who abandoned earthly desires. It was reported that Caliph Abū Bakr as-Ṣiddīq wore a ragged ʿabāʾ, which didn’t reflect Abu Bakr’s status as the leader of the Muslim state. Abu Bakr was known for being pious and an extremely devoted practicing Muslim, following Islamic principles of asceticism. The ʿabāʾ refers to the modern-day Bisht or Mishallaḥ, which is usually made from costly fabrics with golden trims and is worn on special occasions.

 

 

7- Qabāʾ قَبَاء

It’s a garment of Persian origins. The qabāʾ is a fitted, buttoned coat with a slit in the back and is usually cinched with a belt. The qabāʾ was a pre-existing garment in the prophet’s time. It is unclear when exactly the qabāʾ was introduced to the Arabian peninsula but since the Arabs had strong trade and economic relations with their Sassind neighbors, undoubtedly the Arab traders and merchants brought this garment back to Arabia. The Prophet is mentioned to have been gifted an aqbiya muzarrara (qabāʾs adorned with buttons).

The prophet wore a qabāʾ that was gifted to him made from brocade but took it off after God proscribed men from wearing silk and gave it to Umar to sell it. 

“The Prophet [SAW] put on a qabāʾof Ad-Dibaj (brocade) that had been given to him, but he soon took it off and sent it to ‘Umar. It was said to him:

‘How soon you took it off, O Messenger of Allah.’ He said: ‘Jibril, peace be upon him, prohibited me from wearing it.’ Then ‘Umar came weeping and said: ‘O Messenger of Allah, you disliked something but you gave it to me.’ He said: ‘I did not give it to you to wear it, rather I gave it to you to sell it.’ So ‘Umar sold it for two thousand Dirhams.”

Until the reign of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mu’tasim (r. 833 – 842 AD), the qabāʾ was a tight-sleeved coat, but in his reign, he coined the wide-sleeved qabāʾ. 

 

8- Ḥibara حِبَرَة

A black and striped thawb (overtunic) from Yemen made from silk. It was reported that the ḥibara was one of the Prophet’s favorite garments even becoming one of his shrouding garments. According to a hadith narrated by Anas said: 

“The most beloved of garments to the Prophet of Allah [SAW] was the ḥibarah.”

 

9- H̱amiṣa خَميصة

A black square-shaped striped mantle with two decorated hems, in a different color on each side, made from silk or wool. It was reported that it was a popular mantle at the time of the prophet. According to a hadith, the ẖamiṣa distracted the prophet from prayer because of its colorful decoration and ordered it to be returned.

 10- Miṭraf مِطرَف

The miṭraf was a square-shaped cloak popular during the prophet’s time and in early Islam. It was made from ẖazz and had trim edgings. Historical references on this garment mention that Muʿāwiyah Ibn Abu Sufyyān enveloped himself in a miṭraf. On another account, Hishām Ibn Abd Al-Malik threw his miṭraf at a poet as a reward for his poetry praising him.

Women:

As mentioned earlier, many of the garments worn by the Arabs in pre-Islamic Arabia, whether outer garments or undergarments, were unisex. The same goes for many of the outer mantles, like the burd, izār, Mulāʾa, and Milḥafa; however, they differed from men’s in the manner of draping, decorations, and types of fabrics used. 

Having said that, the Mirṭ, Jilbāb, Rayṭa, and Khimār, each denoting a certain type of overwrap or mantle, were specifically women’s garments. After Islam was revealed in Arabia, Arab women complying with religious and cultural mores would step out of the house enwrapped in any of those big mantles on top of their entire clothes, leaving only one eye free—a style that, as already noted, was mentioned by writers in late Antiquity. This style could still be witnessed with elderly women in Iran, southern Algeria, and Morocco.

This is why a large portion of Arab women’s wardrobes throughout the Middle Ages right up to the 20th century mainly consisted of large mantles or wraps for any outdoor activity. Voluminous wraps functioned as a way to hide the body form. Women in early Islamic times normally covered their heads and faces with a variety of veils when appearing in public.

 

Generally speaking, medieval Islamic female outer garments were characteristically ample in length to maximize coverage, boxy, loose, flowy, and not diaphanous, with the main goal of hiding the silhouette of the body (since Islamic female dress principles denounce accentuating the shape of the body) and accommodating to the hot and dry climate. This is a glaring contrast from Western fashion, particularly Northern European which focused more on garments defining the body form (although fitted garments started as late as the 14th and 15th centuries) combined with fitted, structured undergarments (starting as early as the 16th century) such as corsets, bodices, crinolines, panniers, and petticoats that helped accentuate the body in various silhouettes according to what was fashionable at the time. Unsurprisingly, such garments were unheard of in a Muslim woman’s vestment. Women relied on girdles, belts, and sashes for definition and accentuation.

Over the outer garments, sporting an enveloping cloak or wrap was a prerequisite when stepping outside the house.

Literature from the recent past and before the modern age indicates that Muslim women wore different clothes in the privacy of their homes than they wore in public spaces. Female depictions in miniatures and manuscript artwork are often portrayed in outdoor scenarios, with a few passing depictions of their daily indoor attire. Since women were often wrapped in large concealing wraps outside their homes, they dressed however they preferred inside their private quarters. The paucity of artwork depicting Medieval Arab women in their indoor attires leaves us with a lot of guesswork and speculation on how they fashioned their hair, gowns, and headdresses when in the confines of their homes or with the company of other females. Lanes‘ account of the modern Egyptians was the only comprehensive, detailed written account of Arab female fashions that specifically revealed what a typical Eastern woman would dress like inside her intimate quarters, and it was written as late as the 19th century.

1- Qamis قميص

The word Qamis in Arabic means shirt, yet in a feminine context it means an outer tunic or outer shirt.

 

2- Mirṭ مِرط

A large outer mantle draped over the whole body, made from wool, linen, or silk. 

 

3- Jilbāb جِلباب

According to Arabic dictionaries, a jilbāb refers not to a specific garment but to various kinds of garments. Arab linguists define it as either, 1) a large veil that covers a woman’s head, shoulder, and chest. 2) A large overgown or thawb. 3) A Chador-like outer wrap, synonymous with an izār or a Milḥafa, that a woman envelopes herself in when stepping outside. 

 

4- Siyyārāʾ سِيَّراء

A cloak with golden or silk stripes. According to a hadith narrated by Anas bin Malik, He saw Umm Kalthum, the daughter of the Messenger of Allah [SAW], wearing a Burdah of Siyyārāʾ silk, and Siyyārāʾ is a fabric with stripes of silk.

 

5-Rayṭa رَيطة

It refers to a Mulāʾa (an outer warp) that isn’t made with two stitched pieces. In the book “Arab Clothes in pre-Islamic Poetry: A Descriptive Dictionary of Arab Garments“ by Yahia Aljabouri, it’s described as white in color and made from soft and light fabrics.