After the death of the last Rashidun Caliph ʿAlī ibn ʾAbī Ṭālib, and following a turbulence-stricken Islamic state, the Umayyads declared their caliphate in 661 C.E. With Islam spreading rapidly by the Arabs, the Islamic Empire was at its peak and was able to procure a civilization unprecedented in size and influence at its time. The empire’s territories grew exponentially, encompassing immense domains of nations and land, conquering North Africa and Spain, Southeastern Anatolia, and Central Asia, even reaching its grasp as far as the borders of China and India. This naturally led to the enforcement of tributes and taxes upon their conquered states, leading to an insurmountable mass of resources and revenue acquired into the Islamic state’s treasury.

The Umayyad Caliphate is the cradle of Islamic attire, pomp, and opulence that would continue to flourish and evolve over the succeeding dynasties. It’s crucial to note that Islamic fashion didn’t have a substantial amount of time to drastically evolve during the Umayyads since their dynasty didn’t even last a century. Nevertheless, as a consequence of the newly obtained riches and luxurious goods from the nations conquered by the Muslims, and with the rise of a wealthy Arab bourgeoisie class, the Umayyads diverted away from their predecessors’ simple and self-restraint lifestyle, and earlier proscriptions like wearing silk and brocade for men were abandoned and instead, the wearing of clothes made from every extravagant fabric available to reach became the norm. 

The silk and textile industry flourished under Islamic rule, and an institution inspired by Byzantine and Sassanid models was established, giving rise to the term tirāz. The word tirāz is derived from the Persian word for embroidery and can refer to inscribed textiles, the bands of inscription that were embroidered onto them, or the factories in which they were produced.

Under the patronage of Caliphs, dedicated workshops and factories were erected for the production of sumptuous garments for the caliph, his family members, and his whole entourage. These garments were given as “robes of honor” to courtiers and ambassadors in a khil‘a ceremony, where they served as a symbol of individuals’ loyalty to the caliphate. The dār al-tirāz or (House of tiraz) could be private (khāssa), set up within the complex of the palace, or public (‘āmma). (See my article on Tiraz and Khilʿa) 

The ruling Arab elites wanted to rid themselves of their simplistic Bedouin origins by putting on regal airs via the adoption of the refined imperial styles of clothing worn by the sedentary civilizations under their control, especially the Sassanid, Chinese, and Byzantine. They also adopted Sassanid and Byzantine court architecture, etiquette, and dress. Yet, these inspired styles of clothing were worn in the private inner court and weren’t displayed to the general public, as the caliphs were keen on maintaining their image as pious and temperate rulers.

In the later Umayyad period, the styles of washi (multicolored), brocaded, patterned, and embroidered clothes became more prominent. It was reported that the Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd Al-Malik  (r. 724-743 CE) was the first caliph to wear (washi) clothes, meaning clothes with variegated or embroidered patterns.

Albeit borrowing some foreign styles of clothing, the Arabs maintained their ethnic clothing like the Jubba (tunic), ʿAbāʾ (cloak), ʿImāma (turban), qalansuwa (cap), qamis (shirt), and sirwāl (pants), to distinguish their status from the subjugated non-Arab and non-Muslim populations.

Also, the Umayyads were the first Islamic caliphate to employ the use of colors as a political statement. Most reputable historical sources state that they chose the color white as the banner or flag of their caliphate. Other historical sources, however, argue that green was the color of their flag, as stated by a 14th-century Mamluk clerk, Al-Qalqashandī, in his book “Māṯr Āl-īnāfah Fy Mʿālm Āl-ẖlāfah”, yet that statement was contested by several Arab historians. Historians are still in debate on why exactly they adopted the color white. It is speculated that they took on white as a means of giving their reign an extent of symbolic legitimacy since it was the Prophet’s favorite color for its symbolism of purity and cleanliness, which are key tenets in the Islamic tradition.

A) Undergarment

Sources about the types of garments, especially undergarments, in that period are scant, and even more so for females. The only surviving substantial evidence of Umayyad clothing can be deduced from some murals, frescoes, and sculptures located in scattered palaces built by a couple of Umayyad caliphs. However, it’s uncertain if the clothes depicted in them are a true reflection of the clothes worn by the Arabs in that era. Based on the few scattered writings of the time, it’s believed that the undergarments were chiefly unchanged from the previous Rashidun era but were slightly modified by influences of the Hellenistic/Mediterranean styles prevailing in the Levant region, where the Umayyad caliphate capital was present.

Unisex:

1- Izār إزار

Men and women continued to wear the waist wrappers called izar as the principal undergarment. There was no mention of some changes to the izār (sarong) in the Umayyad period; however, according to some sculptures of some women, presumably slave women, in Khirbat al-Mafjar or Hisham’s Palace, built by the Umayyad caliph Hisham Bin Abd Al-Malik, it seems that the izār had some slight alterations with decorations on its borders/hems. It seems that they were made from brightly colored and patterned fabrics based on wall art found in the Abbasid palace, namely Jawsaq Al-khaqani in Samarra.

2- Tubbān تُبَّان

Frescoes found in Qusayr ‘Amra, a royal castle meant as a royal secluded retreat, built by the Umayyad caliph Walid II around 743 C.E., depict men and women wearing a tubban that resembles modern-day female underwear or knickers. It’s said that he built this palace as an isolated resort to pursue his own self-indulgence. The style of the frescos and sculptures has noticeable Hellenistic, Byzantine, and Persian influences. We don’t have substantial evidence that these knickers-looking undergarments were commonly worn by Arab Muslim women, solely based on these few wall paintings.

3-Tikka تِكة

Drawstrings for undergarments (drawers and waist wraps).

4- Qamiṣ قميص

The Umayyads wore all types of opulent shirts made from delicate and pricy linens, silks, brocade, and cotton. Umayyad rulers are reported to have rarely worn a qamis twice. 

Women:

1- Ġhilala غِلالة

A Ġhilala is a sleeveless undergarment, like a chemise or slip, that directly touches the skin, made from sheer and light fabrics like Qassab and Qubāṭī, which are types of very sheer and soft Egyptian linen. According to Arab littérateur Al-Iṣfahānī (897-967CE), in his book Kitāb al-Aghānī (“The Book of Songs”), he mentions that women in the Umayyad era wore “Al-ġhalaʾ il Al-Maʿaṣfara” or safflower-colored Ghilalas. Several frescos depicting female entertainers in Quseir ‘Amra are clad in transparent intimate garments.

B) Outer Garments

Men:

As we’ve previously elaborated on the limited sources regarding male undergarments, the same goes for the outer garments of the time. However, according to Arabic sources, the Umayyads increased the length of the sleeves and qalansuwas (caps). Also, a type of fabric named H̱azz خز (a heavy fabric made with wool and silk, by having silk threads as warp and wool threads as weft) was introduced and popularized during Hisham ibn Abd Al-Malik’s reign. It was often used for winter clothes because of its heavy texture.

During the Umayyad caliphate, dress for both men and women seems to have been derived in large part from the fashions of Sasanian and post-Sasanian Persia and Central Asia, though new elements had already appeared, for example, trousers and a complex arrangement of skirts worn by women. The Umayyads imitated the style of elaborate headwear, particularly the crowns worn by the Sassanid royals. The Sassanid crown, usually a stiff cap made from wool or felt and encircled with a fillet or a diadem studded with precious jewels, with a ribbon tied at the back, sometimes with flaps covering the ears, and topped with elaborate figural metalwork. The clothing worn by rulers in Qasr al-Hayr and hirbat al-Mafjar sculptures suggests a deliberate adoption of the power and authority associated with the vanquished empire.

1- Qabāʾ قَبَاء

According to a caliphal sculpture found in Khirbat al-Mafjar or Hisham’s palace, portraying a caliph, presumably Hisham Bin Abd Al-Malik himself, wearing an ankle-length, Sassind-style qabāʾ with pearl borders, cinched with an ornamented belt.

2- Sirwāl سِروال

The sculpture of the caliph in Khirbat al-Mafjar shows him wearing a Sirwāl (drawers) under the Qabāʾ. The two Umayyad caliphs Suleiman Ibn Abd Al-Malik and Walid II wore sirwals of Washi (variegated or ikat-dyed patterns). These two were mentioned in historical writings for their unprecedented ostentatious taste compared to their predecessors.

3- Burdah بُردة

It was reported that Muawiyah I was able to obtain the prophetic Burdah (cloak) from Ka‘b ibn Zuhayr‘s heirs after his death. The Umayyads wore it frequently at special public events and processions as a sign of their legitimacy and prestige. It is speculated to have been passed down to later generations, even reaching the Abbasids and the Ottomans.

4- Jubba جُبَّة

Continuing the tradition of wearing garments tying them with their Arabian heritage in the regions they conquered, the Umayyads wore the Jubba as an essential part of their caliphal attire. Umayyad rulers wore Jubbas made out of luxurious fabrics, unlike their Rashidun predecessors, known for their austerity and devotion, who wore simple jubbas made from regular fabrics such as cotton or wool. The Rashidun caliphs were reported to have held disdain for garments of an opulent nature. This sentiment is shown in a certain incident happening with Umar Ibn Al-Khattab when he became furious with his proxy in Yemen when he came before him in a brocaded Jubba, demanding the attendees to”rip the Jubba of Iblees (devil).” However, the Umayyads didn’t pay heed to these strict rules. The starkest example is Walid II, who wore washi or embroidered jubbas. The renowned Umayyad caliph, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, was mentioned wearing all his garments in silks and washi (embroidery), to the extent that all his family, retainers, and courtiers, when in his presence, wore embroidered jubbas, cloaks, underpants, turbans, and caps.

5- Mulā’a

The outdoor wrap, mulā’a, was worn by the Umayyad caliphs and scented with all kinds of perfumes. Arab historians mentioned that the Umayyads also wore the Burnus and Mulā’a (an outer wrap). Al-Iṣfahānī reported that Walid II wore a scented Mulā’a.

Women

Unfortunately, very few extant visual sources regarding Arab female outer attire survive to this date, except for the few murals, frescoes, and stucco sculptures in the scattered Umayyad palatial retreats; those depict female entertainers and dancers, so all the clothes, or lack thereof, only depicted non-Muslim slaves women in scantly-clad clothing in the private chambers of a sybaritic prince’s secluded retreat.

If this assumption is correct, these costumes are unlikely to represent the fashions of the ladies of Arab Umayyad aristocracy. The social stigma attached to slaves and entertainers, as witnessed in the public outcry following Yazid’s love affair with two singers, would preclude the mothers, wives, and daughters of the caliph and his entourage from wearing garments associated with court entertainers and the like. However, there is no indication of how the garments of either group differed; whether it was a matter of cut, color, fabric, manner of wearing, or a combination of all four is unknown.²

Yet, a fully clothed woman is depicted in a mural from Qusayr ‘Amra, wearing a flowing blue tunic, probably a thawb, with a small, round opening for the neck. The tapered sleeves of the garment are three-quarters in length. ³

A more complex garment of approximately contem­porary date is represented in the figure of a female lute player on the floor painting from Qaṣr al-Ḥayr al-­Ḡarbī. A long white robe with narrow sleeves and a short overskirt is worn over an even longer green tunic. A violet mantle and soft shoes complete the attire. The basic dress is reminiscent of Sasanian examples.⁴ The prominence of wrapped over skirts or sarong-like garments, probably the Arab equivalent of an izar, in Umayyad and early Abbasid iconography is perhaps an indication of increased Arab influence on the attire of the conquered populations.

In the wall paintings at Qoṣayr ʿAmra, female figures appear in various styles of dress and undress. A flute player wears a long-sleeved garment patterned with floral roundels, diamonds, and flower sprigs, reflecting the tradition of elaborately decorated female garments in the late and post-Sasanian periods. Dancers are shown either elaborately bejeweled but nude or wearing draped blouses or sleeveless belted gowns with short overskirts, both costumes echoing classical attire. ⁵

It is, of course, impossible to say with certainty how much the very Greco-Roman clothing depicted at Qusayr ‘Amra actually represents Arab dress in the cities and towns of the Levant in the late seventh and early eighth centuries. It’s a challenging task to pinpoint an exact style or mode that characterizes the entirety of the Umayyad era since the Islamic empire was in its early forming stages. If we can characterize the Umayyad vestment, we can regard it as a transitional period between the purely ethnically Arabian vestment of the Rashidun and the cosmopolitan and hybrid vestment of the subsequent Abbasid period.

While most of the courts in the lands under Umayyad rule became completely Islamized and Arabized in government and administration, that wasn’t necessarily the case with the general public. The percentage of converted Muslims in those conquered regions was still insignificant compared to the non-Muslim populations.

It’s highly likely that, since the Arab ruling class was still an ethnic minority, the clothing depicted in these murals represented the native attire of the Romanized Levantine non-Muslim inhabitants of the region, where cultural osmosis between the Arab conquerors and the non-Arab conquered population had not yet taken place. This separation of cultures is assumed to have lasted right until the Abbasid era, when cultural assimilation began to occur.

The Arab ladies of the Quraishite ruling elite clans were likely still wearing the garments they were accustomed to in the early days of Islam in the Peninsula. However, these garments took on a more refined style and were woven from expensive fabrics (silks, brocades, satins, and high-quality linens) brought from all over the empire, dyed with prime-quality pigments, and embroidered with gold and silver threads. This is attested by Umayyad literature and contemporary Arabic poetry, particularly Ghazal poetry, which is usually placed in flirtatious contexts and references the enticing attire of women being coaxed or admired by poets.

Umayyad poetry often conveys the opulence and blissful state that the upper-class Umayyad lady enjoys. There is an abundance of imagery describing a woman strutting in her body-concealing riyat (mantles) that are so fine they look transparent, she ties a delicate Khazz (a velvet-like fabric) mi’zar (waist wrapper) on her waist, dons the most sumptuous dibaj (brocade) and qasab (very fine, loosely woven linen) gowns, and colorful ‘asab (tie-dyed) garments, a wonderous mula’ min ‘ataq al-kittan (body wraps from high-quality linen), the long trains of her spacious gowns or cloaks that hide her traces as she walks on the sand and she sleeps in a khazz mifdal (sleeping gown).

Such ample references to the variety of expensive fabrics worn by the women of the Umayyad aristocracy highlight the mighty dominion of the Umayyad caliphate and the material wealth they possessed. Not forgetting that various garments were named after the different provinces that they were brought from across the empire, further emphasizing the reach and influence of the Umayyads.

Mentions of Saffron and Safflower-dyed malahif Herawiyyah (mantles from Herat in Khorasan), muttrafat As-Sous (cloaks with borders from Sousa in Tunisia), Yemeni washi al-hibarat (striped cloaks), or a Yemeni rayt zat al-hadab (tasseled mantles), Syrian or Byzantine green dimaqs (damask), firand al-khusurawani (from Khosrow), fine silken garments from Persia, and Iraqi mufawwaf (white striped) khazz chemises.

C) Head Covering

Men:

1- ʿImāma عِمامة

It was reported that the ʿImāma in the Umayyad period was made from the most lavish fabrics such as silk, brocade, and especially, ẖazz, and was full of embroidery and embellishments. Umayyad Muslim governors (Wālis) wore red ʿImāmas made from ẖazz.  Al-Iṣfahānī states that Alhājjaj Ibn Yusuf (an Umayyad governor) was the first to wear red ʿImāmas made from ẖazz, a fashion trend that later permeated across Iraq.

2- Qalansuwa قلنسوة

Walid Ibn Abd Al-Malik was mentioned wearing a qalansuwa (cap) in a Friday sermon. The much-revered pious Umayyad Caliph, Omar Ibn Abd Al-Aziz, in following the prophetic traditions, wore the qalansuwa either single or coupled with the ʿImāma. Whereas the more immoderately characterized Walid II wore qalansuwas with washi.

3- Ṭawīla طويلة

A type of elongated cap that was introduced during the Umayyad period was called Ṭawīla. It is a conical cap with a miter-like appearance. Its frame was made from wood or reed and covered with silk or any other fabric. It was encircled by theʿImāma and used as a royal symbol by the later Umayyads. Arab historians described its shape as a sugarloaf. The qalansuwa ṭawila‘s origin is traced to a Parthian origin; it appears to have been borrowed by the Umayyads from Persia as early as the reign of Hisham ʿAbd-al-Malek. Pointed hats represented at Commagenian Nimrud Dagh in south­eastern Turkey and Parthian examples; tall, rounded caps were also current during the Sasanian period.

Al-Iṣfahānī reported that Hisham Ibn Abd Al-Malik wore a qalansuawa ṭawila on his way to perform the Pilgrimage. It was pointed out that the Umayyad caliphs wore this high conical cap as a way to distinguish their royal status from the common people.  

4- Ṭaylasān طَيلسان

The ṭaylasān is a shawl-like headcloth draped over the head, let down to the shoulders. It later became a widespread headdress in the Abbasid era. The word ṭaylasān is a loanword from Persian tālish and tālishān. The ṭaylasān is said to have resembled the ṭalīth, the Jewish prayer-mantle, which was typically worn by the Khaybar Jew tribe in early Islam. The ṭaylsān wasn’t a widely donned garment except by a few ṣaḥābah (companions) in early Islam, considering that resembling the apparel of the Jews and Christians was frowned upon.

In the early days of Islam and the period of the Rashidun caliphs, sentiments of religious fidelity and orthodoxy to the Islamic faith were still at their pinnacle. Still, as each new Islamic dynasty established itself, acquiring more lands, cultures, and creeds into the Islamic State, these rigid, distinctive lines were erased further and further. Perhaps an enveloping and more forgiving attitude was cultivated.

Women:

The non-existent representation of Umayyad court ladies has left us with a significant knowledge gap about Umayyad attire and headwear. Almost all mentions of free Aristocratic Arab women, let alone base, are absent from historical writing. Unfortunately, we don’t have sufficient information on female Umayyad headwear. The only few representations, as we’ve elucidated earlier, are of non-Muslim slave women in the private chambers of a sybaritic prince’s secluded retreat that bear a blend of Greco-Roman and Sassanid influences, which is likely divorced from any faithful representation of 8th-century contemporaneous Arab dress.

It’s highly unlikely that elite Arab women would leave their heads, let alone their faces, uncovered with a veil. These women of the highest echelons of society were covered with various head and face veils found in the early days of Islam, such as the Khimār, qināʿ‘, miqnaʿa, Naṣif, būrqū, lithām, and ḥijāb. The veiled woman on the walls of Quseir ‘Amra above is one of the few representations of female veiling from the period.

It’s noteworthy to mention that a lot of the stucco sculptures depicting Umayyad female slaves and entertainers, aside from their Roman attire and coiffures of ringlets, are wearing headdresses similar to the Roman infula vittae worn by Roman priestesses or Virgin Vestals as part of priestly costume. The infula vittae is a band or several bands of white and red wool, slightly twisted and drawn into a wreath or fillet.

The headdress seen on the sculptures looks like twisted cords or ropes wrapped around the head multiple times. Similar cord-like headdresses are worn throughout Arabia by men and women to keep the head-cloths in place, such as the Kuffiya, or female veils, and were known by various names across different locales and dialects.

One such headdress is called an ‘igal. The Arabian ‘igal, a cord usually of goat’s hair, is said to be an ancient headdress that dates back to ancient Arabian kingdoms. In his book Iran In The Ancient East, the archaeologist and Elamologist Ernst Herzfeld, in referring to the Susa bas-reliefs, points to the ancient agal as the unique headwear of the Elamites that distinguished them from other nations. ⁶ Such a headdress can be witnessed on Arab Lihyanite sculptures, and even going back to ancient Babylonia.

A type of padded headband was popular in Saudi Arabia and Yemen called ‘isaba. This padded headband was worn by men and women in several parts of Arabia. Female versions were more colorful and decorated. Usually, they were stuffed with all kinds of filling, encased in precious fabrics, embroidered, embellished, and decorated with beads, stones, coins, shells, or even buttons. Several chains with pendants or tassels at the end dangled from each side. It served the practical purpose of holding the different headcloths or veils in place, aside from being a form of adornment.

Busts of Roman Vestals wearing the vestal regalia consisting of the seni crines (six-tressed hairstyle), a headdress composed of infula and vittae (woolen bands), a veil known as the suffibulum, a Palla (mantle), a stolla and soft shoes.

D) Footwear

Just like in the Rashidun period, khuffs (boots) and niʿaāls (shoes) were the predominant footwear worn by the Umayyads.

1. Hoffman, Eva R. 2008. Between East and West: The Wall Paintings of Samarra and the Construction of Abbasid Princely Culture. In Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World XXV. 107-132 ↩︎
2. Baker, Patricia Lesley (1986) A History of Islamic Court Dress in the Middle East. PhD thesis. SOAS University of London. ↩︎
3. Stillman, Y. (06 Aug. 2003). Arab Dress. A Short History. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047402800 ↩︎
4. Elsie H. Peck, “CLOTHING viii. In Persia from the Arab conquest to the Mongol invasion,” Encyclopædia Iranica, V/7, pp. 760-778, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/clothing-viii ↩︎
5. Elsie H. Peck, “CLOTHING viii. In Persia from the Arab conquest to the Mongol invasion,” Encyclopædia Iranica, V/7, pp. 760-778, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/clothing-viii ↩︎
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agal_(accessory) ↩︎